Definition:
A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood. Argument is one of the traditional modes of discourse. Adjective:argumentative.
Methods of Argument & Avoiding Fallacies
Ways to support an argument
1. Analogy
Making an argument through analogy involves comparing two objects s(events, situations, people, and the like) and arguing that, because they are similar in some way, a similar action should occur in both situations. For instance, someone might say:
“We should keep our books from last semester; giving them back to the bookstore is just like giving them away anyway, and we shouldn’t just give our books away.”
The person making this claim begins with the premise that one situation – giving books away – is wrong, and argues that a second situation – returning them to the bookstore – is analogous to the first situation. These premises are used to justify taking a similar action in both cases.
Analogies are important to one’s argument, but it is all too easy to apply one situation improperly to another. One must determine the similarity between two situations and, once this similarity is found, one must ask if this similarity is the important and relevant similarity. That is, does this similarity between two situations justify taking the same action in both? See our page on Other Logical Fallacies for more about faulty analogies.
2. Example/Detail
In some cases analogies will be less applicable than in others. Instead of using analogies, writers may find it useful to use examples and details to illustrate some of their assertions. For example, John might say:
“This class is really hard. I spent two hours a night studying for the past week and I still got a C on the last test!”
In this case, John uses a single event – an example or detail – to make a broader claim about the difficulty of a class. Of course, for it to be an appropriate example, it must be representative. In John’s case, it would not be a good example if he cited one difficult test in an otherwise extremely easy class. See our section on Supporting Arguments with Detail for more assistance with this issue.
3. Proof by Absurdity or Contradiction
Proving your position to be correct can also occur by proving that the opposite viewpoint is either contradictory or ridiculous. This is accomplished by assuming that one’s opponents are correct and then reasoning from that to conclude that this assumption leads to something impossible or absurd. Because it leads to an impossible or absurd result, this assumption should be rejected. For example, imagine a lawyer in a courtroom defending a client. The lawyer might say:
“Assume my client, John, did commit this crime. But in order to commit this crime, we can all agree, he must have been at the scene of the crime when it took place. However, thirty people saw my client at a restaurant two hours away from the crime scene two minutes before it took place. For John to have committed this crime, he must have been two places at once. But this is surely impossible! It therefore follows that my client did not commit this crime.”
While proving an argument by contradiction is legitimate, one must be careful of a few things. First, one must be careful not to commit the False Dilemma fallacy. One cannot conclude that a pen is red simply on the basis that it is impossible or ridiculous for it to be green. It could also be blue. Hence, it is important to remember what one does and does not know: if it is impossible or ridiculous for it to be green, all one knows is that it is not green.
Second, one must be careful that the reason for rejecting an assumption is legitimate. Those who believed that the Earth was flat succumbed to this fallacy: “Assume that the Earth is round. This would mean everything we’ve believed for so long is incorrect and we'd have to change our beliefs! Therefore, the Earth must not be round!” One cannot simply decide that results should be rejected because they are an undesired outcome. In order to reject a premise, its conclusion must be impossible or absurd, not simply unwanted.
4. Sources of Authority
Writing for academic audiences requires more than simple personal opinion. As we saw earlier, not all opinions are created equal. One way to bolster an argument is to use the word of an expert. This may be particularly useful for research papers where an expert conducted empirical research and has unique findings.
Like the other ways to support your argument, however, one must be careful not to misuse or overuse this method of support. Academic writing is about more than personal opinion, but it is also about more than uncritical agreement; simply accepting a statement because an authority says it may not persuade your audience. If you decide to use sources to support your points, be certain to critically engage your sources and, when agreeing with them:
1. Base your agreement on more than their position alone, but also their argument.
2. Make sure to address other authorities’ challenges to this point of view.
Example letter arguing ‘’against school uniforms’’
Dear Mrs Andrews
I am writing because you chair a committee in charge of the compulsory wearing of school uniforms. I am a student at Brinsley High School, a friendly and successful school where uniforms are not worn.
I believe that there is good evidence that wearing school uniform is now outdated. I fully understand that uniform looks smarter than casual clothes and that this might attract parents on Open Day. However uniforms are expensive and forever need replacing as students grow. This poses a real worry to financially stressed families. This is made worse by the fact that the uniform is only available from an expensive school shop rather than from inexpensive and competitive retailers.
It's true that wearing uniform means students don't spend all morning choosing what to wear or beg parents for clothes that will impress their friends. However there is another side to this argument: uniforms breed uniformity. We are a culturally diverse nation and if we all dress the same, this encourages us to be the same. At Brinsley High, we are encouraged to express our individuality, yet this seems to be in conflict with the message enforced uniform sends to us.
A big argument in favour of uniform is one of safety. We are easily identifiable and this can be very useful if there is an accident. This appeals to parents who are always worried about new dangers facing us. But could it also be that wearing uniform can bring potential problems? Two friends of mine have been bullied while walking home just because their school uniform identified them as being from a "rival" school. Surely, you wouldn't want this to happen to one of your own children?
In conclusion, I can fully understand the motivation for making students wear uniform to look smart, to worry less about wearing the right clothes and also for safety. However, I hope I have shown that there is another case to be made. School uniforms can be a burden to parents with less money and to students identified as being different. They also stifle a sense of freedom and self-expression. I believe this rule is outdated and is in many ways illogical. It needs to change.
Yours sincerely,
Gary White
Arguing dialogue
Dan: I’m home
Jane: back home late aren’t you?
Dan: yeah well, I had to clear up some things in the office.
Jane: o really. Jack said you guys just had a good time at the Feisty Goat Bar.
Dan: ah… he did?
Jane: yeah…. So how was it?
Dan: how’s what?
Jane: the drinking.
Dan: o… the drinking… well… er… it was good.
Jane: pretty good huh.. good enough to make me wait for you huh?
Dan: why were you waiting for me dearest?
Jane: o.. nothing…. Just had a small dinner planned just for the two of us. Salad all mixed and ready, Champagne in the ice, two steaks ready for the grill… but no…. you were busy at the bar clearing up some things weren’t you?
Dan: but what are we celebrating dearest? Is there something about today that I should remember?
Jane: remember?! Why just don’t worry your poor old head, its just 20th anniversary that’s all..
Dan: why … i… I’m sorry I forgot…
Jane: Of cos you’re forgiven. Now, if you would just excuse me, I’ll be on my way to my mother’s house.
Dan: aww.. c’mon Jane lets talk about this ok? This was my fault….
Mom: so how was work?
Dad: ahh…had a lot of clients today in the office, and well I have to fly to Taiwan tonight for a presentation to the branch there..
Mum: o really. Ronnie just told me you had a great time at the driving range( golf).
Dad: its just some clients lah.. you know them….
Mum: Just go out and spend time with your friends huh! While I wait at home for you..
Dad: aiya… you know la.. work is work… can you stop nagging at me not?
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